Although various twentieth-century political movements had promised to supersede Western liberalism, by the end of the century their impetus had been exhausted. The most prominent manifestation of this optimism was Francis Fukuyama’s thesis of the “end of history.” Writing a few months before the Berlin Wall fell, Fukuyama argued that humankind’s ideological evolution had come to an end. In due course, others would surely follow suit. It had already triumphed in many of the most militarily dominant, economically advanced, and culturally influential countries in the world. Liberal democracy, many argued, was the most just and attractive political regime. Until a few years ago, the optimists reigned supreme. Such conclusions risk being just as rash as the more optimistic ones that preceded them. Indeed, some authors today predict that as the conditions that made liberal democracy possible fade away, it is likely to be supplanted by illiberal democracy, competitive authoritarianism, or outright dictatorship. Now, as the tides of history are rapidly turning, the hypotheses of theory are being reversed. The most prominent manifestation of this optimism was Francis Fukuyama’s thesis of the “end of history.” Ironically, many of the same social scientists who dismissed Fukuyama’s work out of hand at the time were themselves committed to equally far-reaching assumptions. Until a few years ago, many argued that liberal democracy was the most just and attractive political regime.
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